Cooking is the process of preparing food for consumption by the application of heat.  Heat may be applied to foods through convection, conduction, or radiation.  Heat applied with convection methods is transmitted through the circulation of hot air or liquid.  Heat applied in a conductive manner is transmitted through another substance.  In cooking, the conductor is often the pot or pan itself.  Radiant heat is transmitted directly from the heat source to the food.  One example of heat transmitted by convection is the steaming technique.  An example of heat transmitted through conduction is the sauté technique.  Heat transmitted by radiation occurs in grilling and broiling techniques.
There are a variety of techniques used to cook food. Although there are many classical and modern terms associated with cooking, the fact remains that only three cooking processes exist: dry-heat cooking, moist-heat cooking, and the combination of dry and moist-heat cooking.  Within these broad processes each of cooking technique is applied to certain foods to achieve a distinct and desired outcome.  The ability to match the proper cooking technique for a particular food item must take into consideration the item’s texture, size, shape, thickness, fat content, and level of natural tenderness.
The combination of food and cooking techniques that led to the creation of some of America’s most indigenous recipes, such as chicken fried steak, roast leg of lamb, grilled beef tenderloin, and steamed king crab legs, is no accident.  It is important to know some of the cooking techniques are well suited for some food items, but not others, because of the varied length of cooking times, types of food items being cooked and the type of heat application being used.
If food is either under or over cooked, the results include a poor quality dish even if quality ingredients are used.  Dissatisfied customers are another likely outcome.  The exact point in time when a food product is deemed finished many times lasts only for a few minutes.  This makes the skill, developed with experience, to determine the exact point when foods are optimally cooked, yielding the best possible outcome for any given food item one of the most important tasks for culinarians.
Once the dry-heat, moist-heat, and combination cooking techniques are mastered, there are virtually no limits to the types of food a culinarian can cook.  These basic fundamentals of cooking, combined with creativity and imagination are the basis for what we know today as American regional cuisine.

Dry-Heat Cooking

Dry-heat cooking includes the following basic fundamental techniques of cooking: grilling and broiling, roasting and baking, sautéing, and frying.  All of these basic techniques have variations stemming from the fundamentals of dry-heat cooking.  Examples of these variations are poêlé and stir-frying, which, respectively, fall under the techniques of roasting and baking and sautéing.
Dry heat cooking can occur with or without fat and includes all cooking techniques except those which cook foods in a non-fat liquid or with steam vapors such as moist-heat and combination cooking.  The dry-heat cooking process does not add moisture to food items or tenderize the products during the cooking process.  Therefore, foods cooked by dry heat need to be naturally tender or have some additional moisture introduced through techniques such as marinating, barding, or larding.

Grilling and Broiling

Grilling is a fundamental technique that cooks food items using a radiant heat source, which is located below the food item being prepared.  Broiling is similar to grilling except that the heat source is typically located above the food item.  Broiling and grilling are frequently confused because a broiler is often used for other cooking purposes such as glazing and gratinée.
Well-prepared food items grilled or broiled have moist and juicy characteristics on the inside while the outside is slightly charred but with a very flavorful and smoky taste.  The flavorful exterior of grilled items is produced as the juices from the food items are rendered out, reduced, and caramelized on the surface of the food by the extremely high temperatures of a radiant grill.
Commercial radiant grills can be used with or without charcoal and/or hardwoods such as hickory, mesquite, or apple.  The addition of charcoal or hardwoods to a radiant grill can add unique flavors enhancing the overall taste of the finished food items being grilled.  A type of commercial broiler frequently used in the foodservice industry is called a salamander.  Salamanders are usually small gas or electric overhead broilers that operate at extremely high temperatures.  Another common type of broiler is a larger unit that features a pullout drawer with grates; food items are placed on the grate and pushed back into the unit where they are cooked under a gas flame or electric elements.
Barbequing is a term frequently used in American regional cuisine, but which means different things in different regions.   In the Deep South, barbequing refers to a process where a food item is simmered slowly in a tomato-based barbeque sauce.  In the Tex-Mex region, barbequing refers to meats which are smoked slowly in an open pit or over a fire, then sliced and served with a tomato-based barbeque sauce.  In New England the term barbeque typically refers to foods such as steak, chicken, or hamburgers that are cooked outdoors on a gas or charcoal grill.  Basting foods with a tomato-based barbeque sauce is optional in this method. 

Procedure

1. Thoroughly clean the grill or broiler grates.
2. Lubricate the grill or broiler gates with oil.
3. Preheat the grill or broiler.
4. Cut the foods to be grilled into uniformly thick pieces, between ¾ and 1 inch thick.  Pound or butterfly the foods as needed to ensure a consistent thickness.
5. Season the food items to be grilled.
6. Mark the food item to give it the traditional charred stripes or cross hatches.
7. Grill or broil the food items on both sides until the desired level of doneness is reached.
8. Serve immediately.

Chef Tips

Foods cooked by grilling or broiling should be naturally tender or have some additional moisture introduced through marinating.  Meats used for grilling or broiling are commonly cut from the rib and loin sections and are trimmed of excess fat, silverskin, or gristle before using.  Fish is also frequently grilled or broiled, but the best results are attained using solid fish such as tuna, swordfish, and shark.  Delicate fish such as sole, snapper, and bass can be grilled or broiled, but the process is difficult and requires a great deal of experience. Skewers or kabobs can be cooked with like items or using a combination of food items such as chicken, shrimp, and vegetables.
Food items to be grilled or broiled should be approximately the same thickness so the level of doneness can be gauged effectively and the cooking times consistent.  Food items should not be too thick—¾-1 inch thick is recommended for grilled or broiled foods. Thicker food items selected for grilling or broiling can be finished in an oven to prevent excessive charring.  If items being grilled or broiled are too thin, they may not have sufficient time to develop the flavor profile associated with grilled or broiled foods.
The grill or broiler should be re-cleaned after each item is cooked to prevent charred pieces of food from being transferred to other products.  If sauces or glazes are used on food products during the grilling or broiling process, an area of the grill should be reserved specifically for those items. Lightly rubbing the grill or broiler grates with vegetable oil will help to prevent foods from sticking to the grates.  Another less known technique when seasoning a grill is to rub the cut side of a potato over the hot grates.
Season the food items to be grilled or broiled before cooking, but not too far in advance as the salt tends to draw the natural moisture out of foods.  Typically, salt and pepper are the most important seasonings; however, many culinarians use their own carefully measured seasoning mixtures.  Marinating food items can also add unique flavors enhancing the overall taste of the finished product as well as add additional moisture to food items that are typically low natural fat.  Adding an acid to the marinade will act as a tenderizing agent for grilled and broiled items.  It is recommended that fish be marinated no more than 1 hour, poultry for no more than 2 hours and no more than 4 hours for meats.  Over marinating a food item can dramatically change the texture of the food as the acids in the marinade break down the proteins in the product.  Using flavored oil in combination with neutral oil to lubricate the grill or broiler can also introduce additional flavor to grilled or broiled items.  Using different hardwoods in the heat source is yet another way to enhance the taste of grilled or broiled foods.
Marking food items on a grill is a traditional approach to cooking grilled and broiled foods.  Marking, if done properly, will char the food item resulting in diagonal stripes or cross hatches attractively contrasting the food item.  It is important to place the best looking side of the food item, called the presentation side on the grill or broiler first. Do not turn the food item over more than once.  Repetitively turning a food item on a grill or broiler may cause the product to become dry when done and will also cause the markings to become less attractive.
Grilled and broiled items should not be held for extended periods once cooked.  Serve them immediately.  Grilled and broiled items are frequently served with compound butters or butter sauces found in Chapter 1.

Roasting and Baking

Roasting was one of the first known cooking techniques and was originally accomplished by inserting a rod through the food item and cooking it over an open fire while constantly rotating the product.   Although this method cooks a food item more the way grilling is done, it was nevertheless referred to as spit-roasting.  The classical tradition of serving roasted food items on a crouton began when pieces of dry bread were placed under foods being spit-roasted to collect the natural juices that escape.
Roasting and baking are fundamentally the same.  Today, roasting is a fundamental cooking technique where whole or larger food items are placed in an oven and cooked with dry, heated air until the desired degree of doneness is attained.  Baking is the same process; however, the term baking is frequently in reference to cooking smaller portion-sized items and for baked goods.  A whole chicken cooked in an oven is called roasted, but when cut into 8 pieces before cooking is referred to as baked.  The terms roasting and baking are frequently used interchangeably today.  Garlic and tomatoes that are cooked in an oven are frequently categorized as roasted, while a ham is referred to as baked.
Well-prepared foods that are roasted or baked should possess a rich flavor and pleasing aroma with a nicely developed color achieved through caramelization.  Depending on what type of food item is being roasted or baked, the color of the finished product can range from an attractive golden brown chicken to the rich, dark brown color of a standing rib roast.  The color is very important to the overall taste of a roasted or baked item.  The proper color when done indicates that the product is thoroughly caramelized and will provide a certain depth of flavor associated with roasted or baked foods.
Additional flavor can be transferred to roasted or baked foods by a technique called smoke roasting.  Smoke roasting introduces a unique taste derived from soaked hardwood to roasted or baked foods and can be accomplished in the oven, a smoker, or over an open flame in a stove-top device called a pan smoker.  To enhance the flavor of foods by smoke roasting in an oven, placing the soaked hardwood in the bottom of a roasting pan.  Elevate the food item over the hardwood and cover with a tight fitting lid.  As the soaked hardwood begins to heat, smoke is released and is trapped with the food item.  Remove the hardwood from the roasting pan when the product has smoked for the appropriate amount of time and continue to roast, uncovered, without the smoke until the desired degree of doneness is attained.  Care must be taken to not over smoke foods as they can develop a bitter taste and unpleasant aroma if left in the smoke for too long.

Procedure

1. Pre-heat an oven.
2. Trim the food item of excess fat.
3. Season the food item.
4. Truss or tie the food item if needed.
5. Sear the food item.
6. Cook the food item while basting regularly until the internal temperature of the product is 5-20 degrees (depending on the size and type of food) below the desired degree of doneness.
7. Let the roasted item rest and allow the carry over cooking to bring the internal temperature of the roasted item to the desired degree of doneness.
8. Prepare a sauce from the pan drippings.
9. Carve or slice the roasted item.
10. Serve immediately.

Chef Tips

Food roasted or baked should be naturally tender.  Typically for roasted meats the loin and rib cuts are frequently used.  Many cuts from the leg or round are also very appropriate for roasting or baking as well.  Poultry, both large and small, are generally roasted whole to retain as much of the natural juices as possible.  Many species of fish yield extremely moist and tasty flesh with a well-developed flavor attained through the roasting process.  Many vegetables are suitable for roasting or baking such as potatoes and squash.  When roasting or baking vegetables, make certain to pierce the skin prior to cooking so that steam does not build up as the vegetables heat.  If the steam is not able to escape from the vegetables they tend to explode when exposed to extreme temperatures for an extended time.  Some vegetables such as acorn squash should be cut in half and seasoned and basted before and during the cooking process.
Fat and/or skin is a very important ingredient in roasting and baking techniques.  A thin layer of fat on meats or the skin from poultry will serve to baste the item while it is roasting or baking helping to keep the product moist and juicy.  If this layer of fat or skin is completely removed the roasted or baked item may tend to become dry and lose some of its flavor.  Today’s nutritional concerns with regard to fat and cholesterol content are certainly important to take into consideration, however, the amount of fat and cholesterol that is released from the skin or thin layer of fat and introduced to the food item is not highly significant.  Once the roasted or baked item is cooked, the layer of fat can be trimmed off or the skin can be removed before serving if desired.  In either case, the trade off is between nutritional aspects and the flavor and natural moisture of the finished product.  If the nutritional concerns are deemed more important, the food item to be roasted can be coated or encrusted with breading, nuts, and even potatoes or vegetables to help it retain as much natural moisture and flavor as possible.
There are two classical techniques for introducing added fat to roasted and baked foods, barding and larding.  Barding is a term that refers to the process of tying thin sheets of fat such as bacon, caul fat, or fatback around the outside of a food item and then roasting or baking the products.  Once the products are cooked, the added fat is typically removed before the item is served.  Barding is frequently done to game birds in order to keep the product moist during cooking.  Larding is a term which refers to the process of threading thin strips of fat into a lean piece of meat with a larding needle.  Larding is typically done with very lean roasts such as a cut of tenderloin.  During the roasting or baking process, the fat will slowly melt, basting the item internally, adding moisture and flavor.
Some food items may need to be trussed or tied before cooking.  The trussing process can be used to manipulate a food item into a uniform shape and will help it to retain its natural shape during searing and cooking and tends to promote more even cooking.  Another advantage to trussing meats is to create an even and proportionate shape of the slices cut from the food item.
Selecting an appropriately sized pan to roast items is very important for a high quality finished product.  The roasting pan should be of a size that will allow air to easily circulate around the food item, but not so large that the pan drippings will spread too thinly on the bottom of the pan making it easy to scorch or burn the drippings.  To promote air circulation underneath and around the product, it is recommended that the food item be elevated on a roasting rack.  If a roasting rack is not available, the product can be placed on a bed of mirepoix or even on top of some bones, both of which can be used to make the sauce.  Do not cover foods while roasting them in the oven.  Covering creates steam, which will inhibit the roasting and caramelization process and could effect the overall quality of the item.  It is recommended that the sides of the roasting pan do not exceed half of the height of the food item.  If the sides of the roasting pan are too tall, steam escaping from the food product can become trapped in the pan and could effect the overall quality of the item as if a cover were used.
Mirepoix is frequently utilized to enhance the flavor of sauces such as jus and pan gravies derived from the pan drippings and/or fat created from the roasting process.  It is important that mirepoix be cut into the appropriate size to promote caramelization and the full development of flavor in the sauce.  The longer a food item needs to roast in the oven, the larger the cut of mirepoix should be.
Food items to be roasted should be seared first.  It is believed that this roasting technique for large items retains more natural moisture as well as prevents shrinkage during cooking.
Basting foods while roasting should be done on a regular basis in order to keep the product moist during the cooking process.  Typically, the fats and natural pan drippings that escape from the food products and collect in the pan are used to baste foods while roasting.  Foods such as vegetables that have no fat and limited amounts of natural juices need to be basted with a pre-made basting liquid such as a marinade, fruit juices, glazes, sauces, or plain butter.
The internal temperature of a food product can easily be measured with an instant-reading thermometer; however, the carry-over cooking time must be taken into consideration to ensure the final product is not overcooked.  Carry-over cooking is a term refer to the fact that all roasted foods, small or large, will continue to cook for a period of time after removed from the oven.  Carry-over cooking is normal and should be anticipated by culinarians as it can dramatically alter the degree of doneness once the product is removed from the oven.  The larger the food item the greater the amount of heat it will retain and the more its internal temperature will rise.  Small items such as quail or pheasant may only increase 5-10 degrees, where medium size foods such as large chickens or small roast beef may increase by 10-15 degrees and large items like steamship rounds can increase by 20-25 degrees.  In order to achieve the correct internal temperature, the roasted foods need to be removed from the oven when the internal temperature is lower than the desired internal temperature depending upon the size of the products and the estimated carry-over cooking time.
Once roasted foods are removed from the oven, they should be allowed to rest undisturbed.  The resting period, which typically lasts the same amount of time and is concurrent with the carry-over cooking, allows the natural juices to be absorbed and evenly distributed throughout the roasted item.  Resting also allows for the internal temperature of the product to equalize, enhancing the texture, aroma, and flavor of roasted foods.  If roasted foods are not allowed to rest for an adequate time period, much of the natural juices and flavors will escape when the item is cut or sliced.  Be careful not to stab roasted foods with a fork or other sharp implement during the resting period as this will also allow for juices and flavors to escape before serving.  It is recommended that small items be allowed to rest a minimum of 5 minutes, medium items a minimum of 10 minutes and large items at least 20 minutes before cutting or slicing the product.
The natural juices, commonly referred to as pan drippings, are typically used as the foundation of sauces such as jus, jus lié, and pan gravies, roasted and baked food items.  These sauces can be found in chapter 1 and are prepared while the roasted items are resting.

Poêlé

Poêlé is frequently used for poultry, game birds and white meats such as veal or pork.  The procedure for this technique is similar to roasting except that the food item is typically cooked in a covered casserole or earthenware dish on top of a bed of edible mirepoix, which was sweated in a generous amount of whole butter.  The edible mirepoix, classically termed matignon, is peeled and cut into uniform shapes and used as the garnish for sauce made from the natural juices and pan drippings the same way as in the traditional roasting technique.  During the cooking process, the food item is basted with its natural juices and the butter from the matignon.  This explains why the poêlé technique is sometimes referred to as butter roasting.
Well-made foods cooked using the poêlé technique should be moist and juicy with a delicate flavor.  The surface of a poêléd food item should be moderately browned but still has a moist appearance with a nice contrast of color compared to the interior of the product.

Procedure

1. Pre-heat an oven.
2. Trim the food item of excess fat.
3. Season the food item.
4. Truss or tie the food item if needed.
5. Sear the food item.
6. Peel and uniformly cut edible mirepoix.
7. Sweat the mirepoix in a liberal amount of whole butter.
8. Place the seared food item on a bed of sweated mirepoix in the bottom of a casserole or earthenware dish.
9. Cover with a tight fitting lid.
10. Cook the food item while basting regularly with the butter and natural pan drippings until the internal temperature of the product is 5-10 degrees (depending on the size and type of food) below the desired degree of doneness.
11. Let the poêléd item rest and allow the carry over cooking to bring the internal temperature of the roasted item to the desired degree of doneness.
12. Prepare a sauce from the juices and pan drippings and garnish with the edible mirepoix.
13. Carve or slice the poêléd item.
14. Serve immediately.

Chef Tips

The addition of the edible mirepoix (matignon) not only acts as the garnish for the sauce typically served with poêléd food items, it also serves to add moisture and flavor to the food item and subsequently the pan juices used in the sauce. Although a matignon is generally comprised of onions, carrots, and celery, some culinarians choose to add or substitute parsnips, leeks, and other aromatic vegetables into the combination.
Use whole, unsalted butter to sweat the matignon and to baste the food item. If additional salt is needed, it can be added to the sauce where the flavor outcome is easier to control.  The butter used to sweat the matignon will blend with the food item’s natural juices during the cooking process adding a depth of flavor to the product as well as acting to keep the product moist.
Typically, the poêlé technique requires a casserole dish or earthenware dish with a tight-fitting lid.  The poêlé technique typically does not yield the deep brown color as with the roasting technique.  Removing the lid during the last 15-20 minutes of the cooking process will help to add a crispier texture and darker color to the surface of poêléd food items.

Sautéing

This dry-heat cooking technique is used frequently by culinarians and for a variety of food products.  Meats, fish, seafood, fruits, and vegetables can all be sautéed if desired.  The sauté technique rapidly cooks food in a pan, over high heat, with relatively little amounts of fat.  The juices from the items are collected on the bottom of the pan during the cooking process and are used to create sauces to accompany sautéed foods.
Due to the rapid cooking process, the sauté technique does not have the same tenderizing effect of the moist-heat cooking techniques and, therefore, foods to be sautéed should be naturally tender.  Sautéed foods should be tender to the bite and have a very flavorful and colorful exterior.  This is achieved through caramelization of the natural sugars in the food item that occurs when the food is cooked quickly over high heat.  Sautéed red meats and wild game products should have a rich, dark brown exterior.  White meats such as veal, poultry, or pork should have a golden brown exterior when sautéed and delicate fish fillets a light gold color.
Sautéing is frequently used for vegetables; however, in most cases they are actually stir-fried due to their constant tossing or stirring while cooking. Vegetables with a hard texture such as carrots, green beans, and broccoli are par-boiled and shocked in advance.  Softer vegetables like snow peas, zucchini, and pencil asparagus are typically not par-boiled, but sautéed from the raw stage.  Just before service, they are sautéed over high heat in a small amount of fat, usually clarified butter, and seasoning.  The process generally takes 2-3 minutes and yields vegetables with a rich natural flavor and brilliant color.  A variety of culinary preparations frequently call for onions to be sautéed and used as an ingredient.  There are two commonly referred to levels of doneness for onions: sweated or translucent and caramelized.   Sweated onions are those that are cooked just until the natural moisture begins to escape and the appearance of the onions become translucent.  Caramelized onions are cooked until the natural sugar in the onions brown to a dark rich color and possess a sweet flavor.

Procedure

1. Cut the food item into an appropriate shape.
2. Trim the food item of fat, bones, skin, and/or silverskin.
3. Season the food item.
4. Heat the pan.
5. Dredge the food item in flour and shake off the excess (optional).
6. Add a small amount of fat and heat the fat in the pan.
7. Place the presentation side of the food item into the pan and cook over medium to high heat until nicely browned.
8. Turn the food items and continue to cook until just before the desired level of doneness is attained.
9. Remove the food items from the pan and hold warm until needed.
10. Deglaze the pan with an appropriate liquid.
11. Prepare an appropriate sauce in the pan used to cook the food item.
12. Serve immediately.

Chef Tips

Foods cooked by the sauté technique should be naturally tender as this technique does not naturally tenderize foods.  Typically for sautéed red meats, the loin cut is used.  With more tender white meats such as veal and pork, cuts from the loin, rib, and leg are frequent selections.  The boneless breast meat from poultry are also common choices for sautéed items and almost every variety of fish, seafood, and vegetable can be sautéed with excellent results.
Cut the food items into appropriate shapes and trim any excess fat, skin, silverskin, and bones from the products.  Meats can be pounded and tenderized into thin round shapes sometimes referred to as a ‘scaloppini’ or slightly thicker shapes called ‘medallions’.  It is recommended that the skin from fish and poultry items are removed before sautéing, however, some recipes call for the skin to remain intact.  Fish and poultry should also be free of bones before sautéing.  Vegetables should be sliced into small uniform shapes and if needed par-boiled in advance of sautéing.
Season the food products to be sautéed before they are cooked, but not too far in advance as salt will extract the natural moisture from food.  Typically, items being sautéed are seasoned simply with salt and pepper to bring out the maximum natural flavor of the items being cooked.  Complex seasonings and marinades can be used in the sauté process, however, care must be taken to prevent the seasonings or marinade from masking the natural flavor of the items being sautéed.
Dredging food items to be sautéed with flour or seasoned flour is an optional step depending on the desired results.  We recommended dredging poultry, white meats, and delicate fish and seafood, but not red meats or steak-type fish.  After dredging a food item in flour, it is important to shake off any excess flour before cooking the product.  Dredging a food item in flour before it is sautéed will result in a crispy exterior texture and pale to golden brown color, that is pleasing to the eye as well as the palate.
Select an appropriate pan to sauté foods.  The two most commonly used pans for the sauté technique are the ‘sautoir’ and the ‘sauteuse’.  The sautoir pan is one with straight sides and the sauteuse has curved sides.  Typically, the sauteuse pan is selected when the foods need to be tossed while cooking and the sautoir is generally used when the finished product is finished in the sauce and requires a lid. The diameter of the pan selected is important and needs to take into consideration the amount or quantity of food being sautéed.  The pan should be large enough to sauté the food items without overcrowding the pan.  If too many products are put into the sauté pan, the pan will cool off quickly and inhibit the cooking process.  Typically when overcrowding occurs, the food items will not sear properly and the natural juices will escape causing the food to steam in its own liquid, opposed to the desired result where the product’s natural juices are locked into the food when seared correctly.  It is also important that the pan is not too large, as this can cause the drippings to scorch or burn on the bottom of the pan and yield a sauce with a bitter taste.  We recommend that sauté pans not be reused for more than one preparation as unwanted flavors can easily be transferred to foods.
The fat selected for the sauté technique is important, as the flavor from the fat will be imparted into the food item being sautéed. To add a more distinct flavor to sautéed items, peanut or olive oil or rendered animal fats such as lard, bacon or duck fat can be used.  Oils that are infused with flavoring agents such as garlic, chilies, or aromatic herbs are also popular in American regional cuisine and are frequently used to sauté a variety of foods.
Thoroughly heat the pan and the fat before adding the food items to be sautéed. If the oil or fat begins to smoke, it is a sign that it is too hot.  To quickly sear and brown the food items, place the presentation sides down first into the hot fat.  Reduce the heat slightly and let the product cook without disturbing it for 2-3 minutes or until the desired color is attained, then turn the food items to the other side.  For thicker items, turn the products to the other side and reduce the heat or finish cooking them in a medium-hot oven until just before done.  This will prevent thicker food items and their pan drippings from potential scorching.  In either case, only turn the food products once; as unnecessary turning may cause excessive natural juices to escape from the product leaving it dry.  A general rule of thumb when sautéing foods is hearing a distinct sizzling sound.  If you can not hear a sizzling sound while cooking, it is a sign that your pan is not hot enough to effectively sauté.
Make sure to prepare the sauce for the sautéed item in the same pan.  When a food item is sautéed properly, the natural juices that escape from the product collect on the bottom of the pan.  This collection of juices classically referred to as the ‘fond’, contain highly concentrated flavors that are lost during the cooking process, and should be incorporated into the sauce accompanying the sautéed item.  Sauces are very important to sautéed foods because they add additional flavor and moisture to foods that are generally very subtle in taste, and due to the sauté technique, can retain less moisture in the food than some other cooking techniques.
To make a sauce for a sautéed food item, first remove the food items from the pan just before they have reached the desired level of doneness.  Remove any excess oil or fat from the pan and deglaze with an appropriate liquid.  Deglazing liquids frequently used in the sauté technique are vinegar, wine, brandy, and stock.  The deglazing process will lift the natural drippings from the bottom of the pan.  Once the fond has lifted from the pan, reduce the deglazing liquid until almost dry.  At this point aromatic vegetables such as garlic, ginger, shallots, and/or onions are typically added and cooked until their aroma is released.  A garnish for the sauce that needs to be cooked such as mushrooms or peppers is added at this time and sautéed in the pan.  Once cooked, a base sauce such as velouté, demi glace, jus lié, or one of their respective derivatives is added.  Reduce the sauce to the desired consistency.  If the sauce reduces too much, a little water can be added to thin it as needed.  The seasonings of the sauce should be adjusted and then strained if desired. Once the sauce is finished the reserved sautéed food item can be placed in the sauce and brought to service temperature together.  This will coat or glaze the food with the sauce and ensure that it is properly heated.

Stir-Frying

Typically associated with Asian cooking, stir-frying cooks small pieces of food with relatively small amounts of fat over high heat in a wok.  Stir-frying is similar to sautéing in the respect that both techniques use small amounts of fat and cook over high heat.  The techniques differ in the respect that in stir-frying, the food is constantly stirred while cooking where in sautéing, the food items, except for vegetables, are usually turned only once.  In most cases, the process of sautéing vegetables is actually stir-frying but in a traditional sautoir or sauteuse pan instead of a wok.
A wok is a traditional Asian pan with a round shape and curved interior similar to an upside down dome.  The design concentrates the heat in the center of the pan with varied degrees of heat on the sides making it effective for cooking a variety of foods in a single pan. When a variety of foods are stir-fired together they should be added in sequence, with the items needing the longest cooking time first, and those that need the shortest cooking time last.  Some foods that are added as a garnish simply need to be added at the last moment, just in time to heat them thoroughly.  When stir-frying foods in a wok, the items should be constantly tossed, moving the food from the bottom of the wok to the sides when done making a space to add the next product.
Stir-fried foods are generally cooked in a flavored fat or oil.  Peanut oil is frequently selected for its unique flavor and resistance to high heat.  Sesame oil is sometimes used as a flavoring agent.  If added to the cooking fat or oil, do so in small quantities as the flavor of sesame oil is highly concentrated.  Care must be taken not to let the fat become too hot because sesame oil can burn easily. Oils infused with ginger, garlic, and chilies are also used frequently in the stir-frying technique for the flavor they impart into the foods.
Sauces made from combinations of flavored liquids such as stock, soy sauce, wine or sake, and sesame oil and thickened with a slurry of cornstarch or arrowroot are added to stir-fried foods to loosely bind the products together and add a depth of flavor to the finished dish.

Procedure

1. Cut the foods to be stir-fried into appropriate shapes and sizes.
2. Trim the food items of fat, bones, skin, and/or silverskin.
3. Season the food items.
4. Heat the wok.
5. Add a small amount of fat and heat the fat in the wok.
6. Place the food items into the wok and cook over medium to high heat until nicely browned.
7. Frequently toss the food items up the sides of the wok and continue to cook until just before the desired level of doneness is attained.
8. Add an appropriate sauce to the wok and toss thoroughly.
9. Remove the food items from the wok and hold warm until needed.
10. Serve immediately.

Pan-Frying

There are two primary techniques commonly used to fry foods, pan-frying and deep-frying.  Both of these techniques are frequently used in American regional cuisine and are important for every culinarian to understand in order to apply the technique.  Well-made fried foods should not be greasy or fatty, but instead tender, moist and juicy, with a crispy exterior coating.
Pan-frying is similar to the sauté technique except food is cooked more by the heat of the oil than from direct contact with the pan.  Where sautéed foods are sometimes have a light dusting of flour on the surface, pan-fried foods are typically thoroughly coasted with breading, an egg and flour combination, or with a batter.  The coating applied to pan-fried foods produces a flavorful and crisp exterior with an appealing golden to brown color and acts as a barrier to prevent the item’s natural juices from escaping during the cooking process.  The coating will prevent the food item from browning directly and will then take on a different flavor profile than the same item that is sautéed.
The final color of a pan-fried item will range from amber, to golden, to brown depending on the food item being cooked, the type of coating used, and how long it is needs to cook in the hot fat or oil to attain the desired level of doneness.  Similar to sautéing, if the food item lacks an appropriate color, it is an indication that insufficient heat was applied during the cooking process and/or the pan was overcrowded with product.  If the foods being pan-fried are excessively dry, it is an indication that they are overcooked or cooked at temperatures that were too high.
Pan-fried foods should be naturally tender in order to yield a moist and tender finished product.  Like the sauté technique, pan-fried foods should be trimmed of excess fat and/or silverskin; however, in some cases such as fried chicken or pork chops, the bones are typically left in.  We recommend fish prepared with the pan-frying technique be free of bones before cooking.  As there are no natural juices or pan drippings created in the pan-frying technique, sauces for these foods are typically made separately.

Procedure

1. Cut the food item into an appropriate shape.
2. Trim the food item of excess fat and/or silverskin.
3. Season the food item.
4. Coat the food items with a batter, standard breading, or with egg wash and flour.
5. If breaded or floured, let the items rest under refrigeration at least 1 hour before cooking.
6. Heat an appropriate amount of fat or oil to the proper temperature.
7. Place the food items into the fat or oil and cook over medium heat while moving frequently, but not turning, until nicely browned.
8. Turn the food items and continue to cook heat while moving frequently until the desired level of doneness is attained.
9. Remove the food items from the pan and degrease on absorbent paper towels.
10. Serve immediately with an appropriate sauce.

Chef Tips

Foods cooked by the pan-frying technique should be naturally tender.  White meats such as veal or pork are frequently pan-fried in American regional cuisine.  Chops cut from the rib or loin are very popular, as are cuts from the leg. Chicken fried steak from the Tex-Mex region and the pan-fried trout in the Rocky Mountain cuisine chapter are both classic American regional dishes using the pan-frying technique.  In addition to tender cuts of meat, poultry, fish, and seafood, vegetables can also be pan-fried with excellent results.
Chickens are typically cut into eight pieces and cooked with or without the bones.  Meats such as pork or veal are frequently cut into half or single portion servings.  Cuts from the leg are usually pounded into thin cutlets or scaloppini before cooking.  Fish fillets are also generally cut in half or single portion servings.
Three basic coatings are standard breading, an egg and flour combination, and batters.
To apply the standard breading procedure to food items use the following procedure:

1. Make sure the food item is dry.
2. Season the food items.
3. Dredge the food items in flour and shake off any excess flour.
4. Dip the food item an egg wash and coat thoroughly.
5. Coat the food item with breadcrumbs ensuring that the entire surface is thoroughly covered.  Shake off any excess breadcrumbs (depending on the desired result, the breadcrumbs can be fresh or dried, coarse or finely ground).
6. Let the food items rest at least 60 minutes before pan-frying.
7. Do not re-use the standard breading components on other food items. Discard after using to prevent cross-contamination.

To apply a flour and egg combination use the following procedure:

1. Make sure the food item is dry.
2. Season the food items.
3. Dredge the food items in flour and shake off any excess flour.
4. Dip the food item an egg wash and coat thoroughly.
5. Coat the food item with additional flour ensuring that the entire surface is thoroughly covered.  Shake off any excess flour.
6. Let the food items rest at least 60 minutes before pan-frying.
7. Do not re-use the coating components on other food items.  Discard after using to prevent cross-contamination.

To apply a batter use the following procedure:

1. Make sure the food item is dry.
2. Season the food items.
3. Dredge the food items in flour and shake off any excess flour.
4. Dip the food item a prepared batter and coat thoroughly.
5. Pan-fry immediately
6. Do not re-use the batter on other food items.  Discard after using to prevent cross-contamination.

Due to the extreme temperatures during pan-frying, fats selected for this technique should have a high smoking point so that the fat will not burn during the cooking process.  Vegetable oils, olive oils, peanut oil, and certain rendered animal fats such as goose or duck fat and lard make excellent mediums for pan-frying.  The fat selected for pan-frying should be done with the flavor of the oil or fat in mind.
In the pan-frying technique it is important to maintain the temperature of the oil or fat and an even and consistent high heat, therefore pans made of cast iron or heavy duty aluminum are preferred.  The pan selected should be large enough to pan-fry the food items without overcrowding the pan.  If too many products are put into the pan, the fat will cool quickly and will not seal the coating properly.  When this happens, the food will absorb the fat and the coating can become soggy and fall off the food item, allowing the natural juices to escape and causing the finished product to be unusually dry.  There should also be enough room in the pan for the products to swim freely in the fat or oil.  Overcrowding the pan also allows the food items to come into contact with one another and can damage the coating causing the same dry results.
It is important that the oil or fat is hot enough to quickly seal the coating to prevent the food item from absorbing excessive amounts of fat and losing natural moisture.  Depending on the thickness of the product being pan-fried, temperatures between 325°F (162.8°C) and 375°F (190.6°C) are generally sufficient.
Be sure to degrease the finished pan-fried foods on absorbent paper towels before serving.

Deep-Frying

Deep-frying is similar to pan-frying except that the food items are completely submerged in hot fat or oil during the cooking process.  With the exception of French fries, almost all deep-fried foods are coated with standard breading, an egg and flour combination, or a batter.  Similar to the pan-frying technique, the coating applied to deep-fried foods produces a flavorful and crisp exterior with an appealing golden color and acts as a barrier to prevent the item’s natural juices from escaping during the cooking process.
Deep-fried foods that have been prepared correctly will have a crispy exterior while the interior remains tender, moist, and juicy.  The final color of a deep-fried item will range from pale to golden brown depending on the food item being cooked, the type of coating used, and how long it is needs to cook in the hot fat or oil to attain the desired level of doneness.  Similar to pan-frying, if the food item lacks an appropriate color, it is an indication that insufficient heat was applied during the cooking process and/or the pan or fryer was overcrowded with product.  If the foods being deep-fried are excessively dry, it is an indication that they are overcooked or cooked at temperatures that were too high.
Foods to be deep-fried should be naturally tender in order to yield a moist and tender finished product.  Like the pan-frying technique, foods being deep-fried should be trimmed of excess fat and/or silverskin; however, in some cases such as fried chicken the bones are typically left in.  We recommend fish prepared with the deep-frying technique be free of skin and bones before cooking.  As there are no natural juices or pan drippings created in the deep-frying technique, sauces for these foods are typically made separately.

Procedure

1. Cut the food item into an appropriate shape.
2. Trim the food item of excess fat and/or silverskin.
3. Season the food item.
4. Coat the food items with a batter, standard breading, or with egg wash and flour.
5. If breaded or floured, let the items rest under refrigeration at least 1 hour before cooking.
6. Heat an appropriate amount of fat or oil to the proper temperature.
7. Place the food items into the fat or oil and cook while moving frequently until nicely browned.
8. Turn the food items if needed and continue to cook heat while moving frequently until the desired level of doneness is attained.
9. Remove the food items and degrease on absorbent paper towels.
10. Serve immediately with an appropriate sauce. 

Chef Tips

Select an appropriate food item to be deep-fried.  Foods cooked by the deep-frying technique should be naturally tender.  Potatoes, poultry, fish, and seafood such as shrimp, clams, and oysters are among the foods frequently deep-fried in many regions of America.  The fried chicken featured in the Deep South chapter is an example of a food item commonly prepared by deep-frying.  In addition to tender cuts of meat, poultry, fish, and seafood, vegetables can also be deep-fried with excellent results.  Many times leftover cooked foods are chopped and seasoned, bound with a thick béchamel or velouté sauce, shaped into croquettes, breaded or battered, and then deep-fried.  Sometimes just a batter is deep-fried.  An example of a deep-fried batter is demonstrated in the recipe for hushpuppies in the Cajun and Creole chapter.
Cut the food items to be deep-fried into the same sizes as used in pan-frying.
Season the food items, then thoroughly and carefully coat food items, except for potatoes, to be deep-fried.  In some cases, the seasoning can be added to the flour, breadcrumbs, or batter.  Additional flavors can be added to deep-fried foods using special spice blends, marinades, stuffings, or fillings.  It is important that the coating completely encompass the food item to ensure that all of the natural juices are locked in during the deep-frying process.  The three basic coatings are standard breading, an egg and flour combination, and batters.  The procedures for coating deep-fried food items are the same as for pan-fried foods.  Make sure that if standard breading or a flour and egg combination is used as the coating, that the coated items are allowed to rest under refrigeration for at least 1 hour before cooking.
Deep-frying typically uses fat or oil with neutral flavors so that the foods being cooked do not have any flavors from the fat imparted into the food items.  Although this cooking technique does not generally use the fat to add flavor, selection of the proper fat is still important.  Due to the extreme temperatures during deep-frying, fats selected for this technique should have a high smoking point, at least 425°F (218.3°C) so that the fat will not burn during the cooking process.  In some American regional cuisines, rendered fats such as lard are used in the deep-frying technique to add a depth of flavor to the finished product.  The most commonly used fats for deep-frying are commercially produced fats specifically made for gas or electric deep fryers.  Peanut oil is frequently selected for deep-frying due to its high burning point; however, it does impart a subtle flavor into foods cooked in it.
Bring the fat or oil to the proper temperature before adding food items to be deep-fried.  It is important that the oil or fat is hot enough to quickly seal the coating to prevent the food item from absorbing excessive amounts of fat and losing natural moisture.  Depending on the thickness of the product being deep-fried, temperatures between 325°F (162.8°C) and 425°F (218.3°C) are generally sufficient.  Once food items are placed in the hot fat to be deep-fried, the temperature of the fat or oil naturally goes down for a brief period of time.  The recovery time, or time that the fat or oil takes to return to the desired temperature after placing food items into the fat is significant.  If too much product is added at once, the recovery time will be too long, and will impede the food items or coating from getting crisp and will allow them to absorb fat and become soggy and/or greasy.
Food items to be deep-fried can be cooked with three different techniques.  One method called the swimming technique is generally used for battered food items.  The foods are carefully placed directly into the hot fat or oil and cooked.  Frequently, the food items will fall to the bottom of the pot or fryer and then rise to the top as they cook.  The items typically need to be turned at least once during the cooking process or have hot oil ladled on top of them while cooking so that they brown and cook evenly.  Another method referred to as the basket method, places the food in a wire basket and then the basket containing the food items is submerged into the hot fat.  This method is generally used with foods coated with standard breading.  Shaking the basket containing the food items allows them to easily brown and cook evenly.  Once cooked, the food items can be removed from the fat or oil at the same time by simply lifting the basket.  The last deep-frying technique is called the double basket method.  In this method the food items are placed in one wire basket and covered with another wire basket to ensure that the food items do not float on the surface of the fat or oil, but rather are forced beneath the surface.  This technique is helpful for foods that require an extended cooking time or for those foods that rise to the surface relatively quickly.
Some foods such as French fries need to be deep-fried in two stages.  The first stage, referred to as blanching, allows the food to be partially cooked at a lower temperature and held at that stage until the time for service.  When ready to serve they are then placed back into the fat or oil and cooked until the desired level of doneness is attained.  This process is especially helpful to create a crispy texture and golden brown color with a tender interior.
Identifying the desired level of doneness for deep-fried foods can be accomplished visually as well as with an instant read thermometer.  When small food items rise to the top of the fat or oil and are golden brown in color it is usually a sign that they are done and should be removed from the fat.  Thin or small food items can be cooked to their desired level of doneness from start to finish in the hot fat or oil.  Thicker or larger food items or items with bones and/or stuffings may need to finish cooking in a medium-hot oven so that they do not begin to absorb the fat due to excessive exposure.  If deep-fried items are finished in an oven, make sure the food items are not covered.  A crispy coating can be maintained in the oven if the food items are placed on a rack allowing ample air circulation.  If the items are covered, steam will be created and cause the coating to become soggy.
Be sure to degrease the finished deep-fried foods on absorbent paper towels before serving.

Moist-Heat Cooking

Moist-heat cooking includes the following basic fundamental techniques of cooking: steaming and poaching.  Both of these basic techniques have variations stemming from the fundamentals of moist-heat cooking.  Examples of these variations are en papillote, shallow poaching, pan steaming, boiling, and simmering.
Foods prepared by the moist-heat techniques differ distinctly from those cooked with dry-heat techniques.  The typical flavor outcomes for steamed or poached foods are simple and less complex than sautéed or roasted items.  Because there is no caramelization of the food item during the cooking process, the overall quality of the finished dish relies heavily on the taste, texture, and quality of the product itself.  The foods selected for the moist-cooking techniques should be naturally tender and of extremely high quality.  Fish, seafood, poultry, and a variety vegetable, and some grains are frequent choices for moist-cooking techniques in American regional cuisine.
The moist-heat cooking techniques use a variety of terms to describe different levels of doneness for foods cooked with these methods.
Blanched refers to the point of doneness where foods are cooked just long enough to lock in the natural colors or to make them easy to peel as in tomatoes for concassée.
Par-cooked or par-boiled refers to the point of doneness where the food items are partially cooked.  This step is commonly performed for vegetables that are to be finished cooking using the sauté technique or in braises or stews.
Al dente refers to the point of doneness where the food items are fully cooked but are still crisp to the bite.
Fully cooked refers to the point of doneness where food items offer no resistance to the bite, but retain their shape and color.  They should not have a mushy texture.
Fork tender refers to the point of doneness where food items offer no resistance when pierced with a fork or knife.
Determining the level of doneness with food items cooked using moist-heat methods is difficult as the products are typically covered or enclosed.  Practice and experience with foods cooked using moist-heat techniques are an essential ingredient to mastering this skill.  Some signs indicating foods cooked with the moist-heat techniques are at the peak of doneness are as follows: Fish and shellfish will lose their raw, transparent color and will take on an opaque appearance; crustaceans such as clams, mussels and scallops will open their shells when fully cooked and shells from seafood like shrimp, crab, and lobster will turn a brilliant red color when completely cooked; vegetables and fruits should have a nice color with no signs of dullness or a gray color; grains cooked with moist-heat cooking should be fluffy and not saturated with moisture.

Steaming

The steaming technique can be as simple as creating steam by heating a small amount of water in a pot.  Food items are elevated on a rack over the steaming water and covered, trapping the hot vapors, which in turn cook the food.  The Home Made Tamales featured in the Tex-Mex chapter are an example of this simple process.   There are many ways to steam foods in addition to the traditional pot of covered water.  Bamboo baskets and coussières are frequently used as well as a variety of commercial convection steamers, which circulate steam around food items in a highly controlled environment.
There are three alternate methods commonly used to steam foods: en papillote, shallow poaching, and pan steaming.  Each of the methods cooks the food items by surrounding them with steam.  The steam can be created from a flavorful liquid, from the natural moisture in many food items, or simply from water.  Due to the subtle flavors derived by the steaming technique, seasonings should be applied with care.  In many cases, the flavorful liquid, referred to as the “cuisson” that is used to create the steam, is used in the preparation of a delicate sauce typically served with steamed foods.
Steamed foods are commonly associated with health- or diet-related products.  Although this technique is an excellent choice to attain these objectives, it in no way means that steamed foods should be bland and unimaginative.  On the contrary, steamed foods should possess a subtle taste and are many times served with a delicate sauce that adds a depth of flavor to an otherwise simple food item.  Additional flavors can be imparted to steamed food items by using stuffings or fillings, wrapping them in aromatic leaves, or marinating them before steaming.
Well-made steamed foods should be plump, tender, and juicy with much of their original volume and natural color intact.  Learning to determine the correct level of doneness is extremely important and comes with practice and experience.  Overcooking steamed foods cases them to quickly become dry and lose their natural color and nutrients.  This technique is frequently used in American regional cuisine and, therefore, is important for every culinarian to understand to correctly apply the technique.

Procedure

1. Cut the food item into an appropriate shape.
2. Trim the food item of excess fat, bones, and skin.  Peel vegetables when appropriate.
3. Bring a small amount of liquid to a boil in an appropriately sized saucepot.
4. Place the food items on a rack or in a basket suspending them over the water.
5. Reduce the heat to a simmer and cover the pot with a tight fitting lid.
6. Steam the food items until the desired level of doneness is attained.
7. Serve immediately with an appropriate sauce.

Chef Tips

Food items cooked by the steaming technique should be naturally tender, as this technique does not significantly tenderize foods during the cooking process.
Fish and chicken are generally skinned, boned, and cut into half or single portion servings, although sometimes fish can be steamed whole.  Seafood is frequently steamed in the shell and, if desired, removed from the shell after it is cooked.  Vegetables are usually peeled, sliced, cut into strips or bite sized pieces, or left whole depending on their size.
Water is the most common liquid for steaming foods where imparting additional flavors is not desired.  In most cases, vegetables, rice, cous cous, and prepared foods such as tamales and stuffed dumplings use water to generate steam so that the natural flavor of the food items are not masked with other flavors.  In the case of fish, seafood, and shellfish, a fish stock or court bouillon may be more appropriate as the stock selected can impart an additional depth of flavor to foods being steamed where water cannot.  Herbs, spices, aromatic vegetables, and beer and wine can also be incorporated to the steaming liquid to add an added complexity of flavors to the finished product.
When steaming foods, it is important to allow enough space in the steamer so that the food items do not come in contact with one another.  Adequate space in the steamer will also promote rapid cooking, which is preferred as prolonged exposure to steam will result in the unnecessary loss of natural color, moisture, and nutrients.
Do not remove the lid of the steamer until you are sure that the desired level of doneness has been attained.  When the lid of the steamer is removed prematurely, the steam escapes, and the cooking temperature will be significantly reduced.  This can have an adverse effect on the foods being steamed by requiring prolonged cooking times.
Similar to sautéed foods, steamed foods must take into consideration carry over cooking time.  Although not significant in length, the carry over cooking time can be the difference between an excellent steamed food item and one that is disappointing.  The ability to gauge when steamed foods have reached their exact point of doneness is attained through practice and experience. 

Poaching

A cooking technique that submerges food items into water or a flavorful liquid that is carefully maintained at a temperature between 160°F (71.1°C) and 185°F (85°C).  During the poaching technique, relatively little flavor will be transferred from the food item to the cooking liquid.  Poached foods are typically served with a sauce made with some of the poaching liquid or can be served with a sauce made separately that has contrasting flavors such as mustard or horseradish.

Procedure

1. Cut the food item into an appropriate shape.
2. Trim the food items of excess fat, bones, and skin.  Peel vegetables when appropriate.
3. Place an appropriate amount of flavorful liquid in a pot and bring to a temperature between 160°F (71.1°C) and 185°F (85°C).
4. Place the food item in the cooking liquid making sure it is completely submerged.
5. Maintain a constant temperature between 160°F (71.1°C) and 185°F (85°C). Do not let the cooking liquid boil.
6. Skim the surface of the cooking liquid throughout the cooking time discarding any impurities that rise to the surface.
7. Continue to poach the items until they have reached the desired level of doneness.
8. Serve immediately with an appropriate sauce.

Chef Tips

Food items should be naturally tender, as this technique does not significantly tenderize foods during the cooking process.  Many times, an appareil made from potatoes such as dumplings, or one from seasoned ground fish or chicken, called quenelles, are cooked by poaching.
Whole chickens should be trussed before placing them in the liquid so that they will retain their shape during the cooking process.  Whole fish is generally wrapped in cheesecloth so that it does not break or become damaged during the cooking process.
Select an appropriate liquid for poaching. The liquid selected should contribute to the overall flavor of the finished product.  In some preparations, plain water is used; however, in most cases a flavorful stock, broth, or court bouillon is used as the cooking liquid to compensate for any flavor that might be lost from the main item while it is poaching.
Poaching is generally done in a temperature range between 160°F (71.1°C) and 185°F (85°C).  The liquid show a little motion, but air bubbles should not be allowed to break through to the surface.  The cooking liquid used for poaching should never be allowed to boil.
It is important that the food items are completely submerged in the cooking liquid.  Those parts of food items that are exposed to the air may not cook evenly or thoroughly and tend to take on a different color than the parts that are submerged.  Some foods, such as dense fruits are better poached if placed in the cooking liquid before it is heated.  This will allow items like pears to cook more evenly.
The cooking vessel should be large enough to hold the liquid and food items comfortably as well as offering enough area so that the surface can be skimmed easily.  Racks are sometimes placed in the bottom of the cooking vessel so food items do not stick to the bottom of the pan and to make their removal easier.
Skim the surface of the cooking liquid frequently throughout the cooking process.  Discard any impurities that rise to the surface so that the poaching liquid will not become cloudy and potentially discolor the food items being cooked.

Shallow Poaching

In this technique, a food item is cooked in a covered pot with a small amount of flavorful liquid or water with herbs and aromatic vegetables.  As the liquid heats, steam is created and is trapped in the pot cooking the portion of the food item that is not submerged.  The flavorful liquid that remains, referred to as the cuisson is typically used in the preparation of a delicate sauce.

Procedure

1. Cut the food item into an appropriate shape.
2. Trim the food items of excess fat, bones, and skin.  Peel vegetables when appropriate.
3. Place an appropriate amount of flavorful liquid in a pot and bring to a boil.
4. Add a selection of herbs, seasonings, and aromatic vegetables.
5. Reduce the heat to a gentle simmer.
6. Place the main item on top of the vegetables.
7. Cover the pot with a parchment paper lid and gently simmer until the desired level of doneness is attained.
8. Prepare an appropriate sauce from the cuisson.
9. Reduce the cuisson until it is semi-thick.
10. Add any aromatics, seasonings or garnish ingredients.
11. Stir in a small amount of velouté or béchamel to act as a stabilizer.
12. Remove from the heat and stir in softened whole butte a little at a time stirring constantly to emulsify the sauce.
13. Strain the sauce if desired.
14. Finish the sauce with cream
15. Serve the main item immediately once the sauce is finished.

Chef Tips

Food items should be naturally tender, as this technique does not significantly tenderize foods during the cooking process.
If desired, the pan used for shallow poaching can be coated with whole butter before products are added to it.  Many culinarians believe that the butter will help to sweat the aromatic vegetables as they heat, extracting the maximum amount of flavor from them. Place a selection of aromatic herbs and uniformly cut vegetables in a bed on the bottom of the pan used for shallow poaching.
The liquid selected should contribute to the overall flavor of the finished product.  A flavorful stock is frequently used as the base liquid.  Frequently, the liquid will include an acid such as wine, lemon juice, or vinegar helping to add a depth of flavor to the finished product and sauce. The acid also gives the finished sauce a slightly tart flavor, nicely contrasting the typically subtle flavor of the main item as well as making it easier to later emulsify the sauce with butter if desired.
Place the main items on top of the vegetables and add the appropriate amount of liquid to the pan.  There should be enough room in the pan so that the items being shallow poached do not come in contact with one another, but not so large that an excessive amount of liquid must be used.   The amount of liquid added should be sufficient to bring the level to ½ of the items height, but no more.
Make sure the liquid is at the correct temperature before placing the items to be shallow poached in it.  The liquid should not boil, but instead be gently simmering.  Simmering is generally identified by tiny bubbles rising slowly to the surface, which occurs when the cooking liquid reaches a temperature between 185°F (85°C) and 200°F (93.3°C).
Once the main item has been placed in the liquid, cover the pan with a parchment paper lid that is cut to the diameter of the pan and floated loosely on top of the surface of the liquid.  The parchment paper lid will trap enough steam to cook the portion of the food item that is not submerged, and at the same time ensures the cooking liquid does not significantly increase in temperature.  The liquid should not come to a boil once the food items have been placed in the liquid as the agitation can easily break delicate foods such as fish fillets and the extreme heat can cause poultry items to become tough.  The cooking temperature should be maintained at a gentle simmer for the best results.  Once covered, the shallow poached foods can be finished on the stovetop or preferably in a moderately hot oven where the cooking will be gentler.
Remove the shallow poached foods from the pan when they have reached the desired level of doneness. Moisten the main items with some of the poaching liquid and reserve in a warm place until needed.
The sauce for items prepared by shallow poaching are typically thickened by reduction, with beurre manie, or a slurry made from modified starch and is many times finished with cream or whole butter.  The main item should be served immediately, either under or over the sauce made from the cuisson. 

Pan Steaming

This technique is similar to general steaming except the food items are not suspended over the steaming liquid, but rather partially submerged.  By placing a tight fitting lid on the top of the pan, steam is trapped as the liquid heats, cooking the portion of the food items not submerged in the liquid.  Pan steaming is frequently used to cook a variety of vegetables in American regional cuisine.

Procedure

1. Cut the food items into appropriate shapes. Peel vegetables when appropriate.
2. Bring an appropriate amount of liquid to a boil in an adequately sized saucepan.
3. Add herbs and or aromatic vegetables.
4. Place the food items in the liquid in a single layer.
5. Reduce the heat to a simmer and cover the pot with a tight fitting lid.
6. Steam the food items until the desired level of doneness is attained.
7. Serve immediately with an appropriate sauce.

Chef Tips

The amount of water used in pan steaming is determined by the texture of the items being pan steamed.  Hard textured items such as carrots and turnips may require longer cooking times to attain the desired level of doneness and, therefore, more liquid than softer foods.  In any case, the level of the water should not be more than ¼-¹/₃ the height of the food and the pan should be tall enough to allow for sufficient space for steam to develop.
Typically, water is selected as the steaming liquid because it is not usually used to make a sauce and is discarded; however, flavored liquids can be used if desired.  Herbs and aromatic vegetables such as garlic, ginger, and shallots are frequently added to the steaming liquid once it comes to a boil to add a depth of flavor to the finished product.
Pan steamed foods should be cooked as quickly as possible to retain as much of their natural colors and nutrients as possible.  Although the general rule for cooking green vegetables is to do so without a cover, they can still be pan steamed effectively if done quickly.

Simmering

A cooking technique that submerges food items into water or a flavorful liquid that is carefully maintained at a temperature between 185°F (85°C) and 200°F (93.3°C).  In the simmering technique, the transfer of flavors from the food item to the cooking liquid is greatly increased compared to poaching.  Stocks are an excellent example of foods prepared by simmering, where the transfer of flavors from bones and aromatic vegetables to the cooking liquid is the objective.  Maintaining the correct and consistent temperature throughout the cooking process will allow for the maximum extraction of flavors.
The simmering technique is best suited for foods that require some softening to occur during the cooking process.  Boiled Dinner, featured in the New England Cuisine chapter, is an example of food cooked by the simmering technique, although the name describes it otherwise.  Meats cooked in a liquid at a rolling boil tend to become tough and stringy.   When simmered correctly, the results will be a desirable and fork tender piece of meat.

Procedure

1. Cut the food item into an appropriate shape.
2. Trim the food items of excess fat, bones, and skin.  Peel vegetables when appropriate.
3. Place an appropriate amount of flavorful liquid in a pot and bring to a temperature between 185°F (85°C) and 200°F (93.3°C).
4. Place the food item in the cooking liquid making sure it is completely submerged.
5. Maintain a constant temperature between 185°F (85°C) and 200°F (93.3°C).
6. Do not let the cooking liquid boil.
7. Skim the surface of the cooking liquid throughout the cooking time discarding any impurities that rise to the surface.
8. Continue to simmer the items until they have reached the desired level of doneness.
9. Serve immediately with an appropriate sauce.

Boiling

A cooking technique that submerges food items into salted water or a flavorful liquid that is carefully maintained at a temperature of 212°F (100°C), or a full rolling boil.
The boiling technique is best suited for foods that require substantial softening to occur during the cooking process.  Grains, pasta, beans, and certain vegetables are typically prepared by boiling.
Many dried beans require soaking to begin the softening process.  This can be accomplished by covering the dried beans in cold water for several hours, then straining and cooking them in boiling liquid.  Another method, called quick soaking, combines the dried beans with water and brings them to a boil.  The beans are removed from the heat, covered and allowed to steep for approximately 1 hour.  Then the beans are strained and cooked in fresh boiling liquid.
The amount of liquid used to boil foods is important.  Foods such as grains, pasta, and dried beans absorb significant amounts of water during the cooking process.  As a general rule of thumb, the volume of liquid should exceed the volume of food by a factor of three.  This will ensure that boiled food items will remain completely submerged in the liquid for the duration of the cooking process.

Procedure

1. Cut the food item into an appropriate shape.
2. Trim the food items of excess fat, bones, and skin.  Peel vegetables when appropriate.
3. Place an appropriate amount of flavorful liquid in a pot and bring to a temperature of 212°F (100°C) or a full rolling boil.
4. Place the food item in the cooking liquid making sure it is completely submerged.
5. Maintain a constant temperature of 212°F (100°C).
6. Skim the surface of the cooking liquid throughout the cooking time discarding any impurities that rise to the surface.
7. Continue to boil the items until they have reached the desired level of doneness.
8. Serve immediately with an appropriate sauce.

En Papillote

This technique relies heavily on the natural moisture content in certain foods such as mushrooms, tomatoes, and onions to generate steam.  En papillote refers to a food item such as a fish fillet that is wrapped in parchment paper with these types of aromatic vegetables and heated in a hot oven.  As the ingredients inside the paper heat, an aromatic steam is created.  This highly aromatic steam is trapped in the parchment paper that the fish is wrapped in, and cooks the fish fillet.
The natural moisture that escapes from the aromatic vegetables is combined with the juices from the main item creating a flavorful liquid frequently used to make a sauce for the finished product.

Procedure

1. Cut the food item into an appropriate shape.
2. Trim the food items of excess fat, bones, and skin.  Peel vegetables when appropriate.
3. Cut a piece of parchment paper into a heart shape large enough to allow for the food items and any accompaniments to fit without over crowding.
4. Oil or butter both sides of the parchment paper to prevent it from burning while in a hot oven.
5. Place a bed of aromatic vegetables on one half of the paper heart and top with the main item to be cooked en papillote.
6. Top with herbs, spices, and/or a small amount of a flavorful stock or sauce.
7. Fold the empty half of the paper heart over the main item and seal the edges by crimping or folding them together.
8. Place the papillote in a hot oven and cook until the paper bag has browned and the main item has attained the desired level of doneness.
9. Remove the main item from the paper bag reserve in a warm place until needed.
10. Prepare an appropriate sauce from the natural juices and aromatic vegetables.
11. Serve the main item immediately once the sauce is finished.

Chef Tips

Food items should be naturally tender, as this technique does not significantly tenderize foods during the cooking process.
Fish and chicken are generally skinned, boned, and cut into half or single portion servings.  The aromatic vegetables are usually peeled, sliced, and cut into julienne fine or sliced thin.  The size of the food items to be prepared en papillote will determine the length of time that the products need to cook and therefore needs careful consideration.  This is important because one of the primary objectives in the en papillote technique is for all of the products being cooked to arrive at the desired level of doneness at the same time.
Onions, mushrooms, tomatoes, leeks, ginger, and garlic are among the most common vegetables used for the en papillote technique.  If the main item is relatively quick cooking, the vegetables may be sweated in butter prior to being placed in the paper bag so that they are finished cooking at the same time as the main item.
Thicker food items such as boneless chicken breasts may be seared quickly in hot fat or oil before placing them in the paper bags.  Although this step is optional, it does add color and a depth of flavor to the finished product from the caramelized surface of the food item.  Another advantage to searing thicker items is to shorten the steaming time in the paper bag.
The most common signs that an en papillote preparation has completed the cooking process is when the paper bag puffs up from the volume of steam inside and becomes a golden to brown color on the outside.
Once the en papillote is removed from the oven, open the paper bags and remove the main item.  Reserve them in a warm place until needed.  Prepare a sauce from the aromatic vegetables and natural juices that have escaped from the main item and vegetables.  The sauce for items prepared en papillote are typically thickened by reduction or with beurre manie or a slurry made from modified starch and sometimes finished with cream or whole butter.  The sauce and aromatic vegetables should be served immediately, either under or over the main item.

Combination Cooking

Combination cooking uses principles from both dry-heat and moist-heat cooking.  Foods prepared by combination cooking are generally seared using dry-heat and finished with moist-heat by simmering in a flavorful liquid or sauce.  The resulting foods have a depth and complexity of flavors that can only be obtained through the process of combination cooking.
The finished consistency of foods cooked with combination techniques should be an extremely tender main item served with a smooth, rich, and deep-flavored sauce.  Combination cooking techniques are frequently used in American regional cuisine and are sometimes referred to as home-style cooking or comfort foods.  Red Chili from the Tex-Mex region, Green Chili from the Southwest region, Beef Daube from the Cajun and Creole region, and Pot Roast from the Mid-Atlantic region are all examples of how combination cooking techniques are used in American regional cuisine.
Similar to the dry-heat and moist-heat cooking techniques, combination-cooking methods rely on high quality ingredients and careful execution of the steps and procedures. 

Braising

Braises are typically made with larger cuts of meat, poultry, or fish that are slowly cooked in a flavorful liquid until very tender and sometimes served with a selection of vegetables and/or starches also cooked in the liquid.  Braising is similar to stewing except that the main item is typically whole, such as a pot roast, or cut into single service portions.
One of the benefits of braising is that the cooking technique causes normally tough cuts of meat to become tender by softening the connective tissues by slow and gentle simmering.  The flavor of items cooked by braising also have deep, complex flavors because the juices that escape from the main item and mirepoix are incorporated into the sauce used to cook the food.  If well made, virtually all of the flavors and nutrients from the foods being braised will be retained in the finished product.
Naturally tender foods can also be braised if desired, but great care must be taken when cooking, as less liquid is used and the food items are cooked over lower heat for a shorter time.  Typically, naturally tender foods are delicate and need to be handled carefully so the food items do not become damaged while cooking, slicing, and serving.

Procedure

1. Cut the food items into appropriate shapes and sizes.
2. Trim the food items of excess fat, bones, and skin and/or silverskin.  Peel vegetables when appropriate.
3. Dredge the main item in flour, shake of the excess flour, and sear in hot fat until a nice color has developed.
4. Remove the main item from the saucepot and add mirepoix.  Cook the mirepoix until it begins to brown or caramelize.
5. Return the main item to the saucepot and add an appropriate amount of flavorful liquid.
6. Bring the liquid to a boil and reduce the heat to a simmer.
7. Add any aromatics, herbs, seasonings, and garnishes that require a long cooking time.
8. Cover the saucepot with a tight fitting lid and continue to simmer until the main item has become very tender.
9. Remove the main item and vegetables from the sauce and hold in a warm place until needed.
10. Reduce the sauce to the desired consistency and/or thicken with an appropriate thickening agent.
11. Degrease the sauce and adjust the seasonings.  Strain if desired.
12. Add any garnish items that require short cooking times.
13. Slice or carve the main item and serve with an appropriate quantity of sauce and garnish ingredients.

Chef Tips

Typically, braises are made with less tender cuts of meat, usually from the round or chuck sections.  Using naturally tender cuts of meat from the rib or loin sections may not be appropriate for stewing, as the extended cooking time will not add to the tenderness of such meats.
Meats and poultry are generally trimmed of excess fat, skin, bones, and/or silverskin and cut single service portions or are left whole.  Larger pieces of meat and poultry or stuffed items may need to be trussed before cooking in order to retain a consistent and natural shape as well as to hold the stuffing inside.  Whole fish is sometimes wrapped in lettuce leaves or other food products to protect it during the cooking process.
Searing the main item for a braise will add a rich color and a depth of flavor to the finished product through the process of caramelization.  If the food item is not properly seared the natural juices from the food can escape and will tend to make to make the finished product tough rather than tender.  Whole vegetables to be braised are an exception to searing.  Vegetables are generally blanched in a fashion similar to light colored stews.
Brown the mirepoix in the same pot and fat as the main item was seared in.  Caramelizing the mirepoix adds depth to the overall flavor of the finished braise.  Mirepoix should be peeled in advance, as many times the mirepoix is pureed when tender and added back to the sauce as a thickening agent.
Tomatoes are frequently an ingredient in braised foods.  The acid in the tomatoes will help to break down the tough tissues of less tender cuts of meat.  In addition to acting as a tenderizing agent, the tomatoes provide additional color and flavor the finished product.
The optimal cooking temperature for braises is a simmer which ranges in temperature between 185°F (85°C) and 200°F (93.3°C).  Although braises can be simmered from start to finish on a stovetop, it is recommended that once the braise has come to the proper temperature, it be placed in a medium-hot oven where it stands less chance of scorching or burning.
Add vegetables and/or garnish items with consideration to their respective cooking times.  As braises typically cook for longer times than other cooking techniques, the vegetables and/or garnishes should be added in sequence.  Those with the longest cooking times should be added to the braise before those with shorter cooking times.  The objective being that all of the ingredients in a braise are cooked and tender at the same time.

Stewing

Stews are typically meats or seafood combined with vegetables and/or starches and slowly cooked in a flavorful liquid until very tender.  Stewing is similar to braising except that the main item is typically cut into small bite-sized pieces. 

Procedure

1. Cut the food items into appropriate shapes and sizes.
2. Trim the food items of excess fat, bones, and skin and/or silverskin.  Peel vegetables when appropriate.
3. For dark colored stews, dredge the main item in flour, shake of the excess flour, and sear in hot fat until a nice color has developed or blanch the main item in water or a flavorful liquid for light colored stews.
4. Remove the main item from the saucepot and add mirepoix.  For dark colored stews, cook the mirepoix until it begins to brown or caramelize.  For light colored stews, sweat the mirepoix in fat until it becomes translucent and begins to release their natural juices.
5. Return the main item to the saucepot and add an appropriate amount of flavorful liquid.
6. Bring the liquid to a boil and reduce the heat to a simmer.
7. Add any aromatics, herbs, seasonings, and garnishes that require a long cooking time.
8. Cover the saucepot with a tight fitting lid and continue to simmer until the main item has become very tender.
9. Finish the stew by thickening the sauce with an appropriate thickening agent.
10. Degrease the stew and adjust the seasonings.
11. Add any garnish items that require short cooking times.
12. Serve the stew with an appropriate quantity of sauce and garnish ingredients.

Chef Tips

Typically stews are made with less tender cuts of meat, usually from the round or chuck sections.  Using naturally tender cuts of meat from the rib or loin sections may not be appropriate for stewing, as the extended cooking time will not add to the tenderness of such meats.
Sear or blanch the main item.  Generally, stews that are dark in color call for the main item to be seared, where for light colored stews the main item is typically blanched.   Searing the main item for a dark stew will add a rich color and a depth of flavor to the finished product through the process of caramelization. Searing the food in small batches helps to ensure proper browning.  If too much product is added at once, the fat quickly cools down and inhibits the browning process.  This common mistake will allow the natural juices from the food to escape and will tend to make them tough rather than tender.  For light colored stews the main item should be blanched in water or a flavorful liquid in order to improve the color and flavor of the finished stew.  Cover the main item with cold liquid and slowly bring it to a boil.  Skim impurities from the surface and discard them.  This will prevent the stew from turning a gray color and taking on an ‘off’ taste from the impurities.  Once the liquid has come to a boil, strain the main item from the liquid.
Some stews call for little liquid and rely on the natural moisture of the main item to provide moisture to the finished product.  This is common with stews made from fish or seafood.  Other stews, primarily those made from meat call for a proportional amount of liquid to the main item, and some call for more liquid that the main item depending on the recipe.  As a general rule of thumb, there should be at least enough liquid to cover the main item and vegetables. The liquid should compliment the main item and contribute to the overall quality of the finished product.  As a general rule of thumb, beef stock or broth is appropriate for a beef stew, chicken stock or broth for a chicken stew, and so on for stews using veal, fish, or seafood as the main item.  In some cases, a combination of stocks or broths can be used to add a depth of flavor to the finished stew.
Add vegetables and/or garnish items to a stew with consideration to their respective cooking times.  As stews typically cook for longer times than other cooking techniques, the vegetables and/or garnishes should be added in sequence.  Those with the longest cooking times should be added to the stew before those with shorter cooking times.  The objective being that all of the ingredients in a stew are cooked and tender at the same time.